Author Archives: colliek2

Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius)

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Many plants sharing our gardens are not natives but imports from other lands. At the time, introducing the species probably seemed like a good idea, that is until it turns invasive and deadly.

Scotch broom (Courtesy of King County)

Scotch Broom is a perennial shrub with lovely yellow pea-like flowers, dark green stems, and evil on its mind. OK I made up the evil part, but the more you know about Scotch Broom the more you might agree.

History

Scotch Broom was introduced in the US in the early 1800s.

History indicates that broom was imported as domestic sheep fodder. But, broom may have been imported for its wide variety of medical and utility functions.

Medical ailments treated included (Note: This weed is poisonous. Modern medicines provide safer alternatives):   

Heart problemsHemophiliaRheumatismGout
JaundiceKidney stonesRespiratory conditionsSnake Bite
Sore musclesInfectionsPurgativeEmetic

Utility functions included hair rinse, leather tanning, sweeping brooms, thatched roofs, rope, beer flavoring, yellow dye, and a substitute for hops, capers, and coffee. In addition, Scotch Broom roots host nitrogen-fixing bacteria which help the plant colonize nutrient-poor soils.

It is native to much of Europe and Africa where natural predators for the plant evolved.

In the early 1900’s, broom was planted to prevent soil erosion along Pacific Coast highways. It probably seemed like a great idea at the time.

It didn’t take very long for Scotch broom to become an international superstar pest. Today, broom is considered a pest throughout most of its range.

More than just one

Does it seem like the Scotch broom blooms more than once a year? Well, it does, kinda. There is more than one type of broom and more than one type lives on the Oregon Coast.  

The ranges for Scotch, Spanish, French, and Portuguese broom overlap. You may notice different bloom seasons, lighter color flowers, height differences, and more.  All have a nice yellowish bloom similar to a pea.

Scotch broom and Gorse are sometimes confused (Gorse is very stickery). They both grows in similar conditions, and cause similar problems, but are different species.  

Pest Status

This plant has earned its weed status well by aggressively invading many areas. Once in place it is very difficult to get rid of and control. What makes it so bad?

Broom regenerates quickly, forming dense stands. These stands are unpalatable and somewhat poisonous to wildlife. They will become so dense that even quail cannot live there.  

These thick dense stands will also prevent normal reforestation and regeneration processes and drive many native species out by shading, increasing soil acidity, and toxicity.  

Broom increases fire hazard frequency and intensity. It is one of the most flammable plants there is and poses enormous threat to communities.

It creates a high fire hazard frequency and intensity. Even green, the shrubs will cause a fire to erupt. The broom is one of the most flammable plants there is and poses an enormous threat to our community’s fire safety. 

Seeds

The plant is a prolific seeder and can release 20,000 or more seeds per plant every year. Seeds stock pile over time until destroyed or germinated. Seed remain viable in the soil for decades and any disturbance can cause the seed to germinate.

Seeds will germinate after a ‘cooler’ fire (depending on the temperature of the fire). Hot fires can destroy the seeds.

It is hard to get rid of….

The only way to control this plant is through repetitive and ongoing treatments. Treatments include manual removal, chemicals, burning (hot), shading through planting, and some biological options (Bruhidius villosus, exapion fascirostre, and Leucoptera spartifoliella).

Once established, the plant is very drought tolerant. This tolerance makes herbicides less effective during certain times of the year.

So Expensive

Scotch Broom causes substantial timber revenue losses and costs a lot to control – somewhere over $40 million a year in Oregon alone.

REFERENCES:
–OSU Extension Service (https://extension.oregonstate.edu/news/scotch-broom-beautiful-noxious)
–WebMD (https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-375/scotch-broom)
–King County, Scotch Broom (https://bit.ly/2X7XvAh)
–Scotch Broom (https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/scotch-broom)
–The News Review, Ask a Master Gardener… (https://bit.ly/2X9v4Sq)
–USDA Fire Effects Information System (FEIS) (https://bit.ly/3gar3ol)
–Wikipedia, Cytisus scoparius (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytisus_scoparius)
–Weeds, Working Lands (https://bit.ly/30TRtUO)

Cascara (Frangula pershiana)

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‘Sacred bark’

Leaves and berries of the Cascara tree (courtesy Oregon State University, landscape)

Cascara is a medium-sized deciduous tree or large shrub that can reach 33-feet tall.

Spanish conquerors found several native people using the bark in the 1600s. The conquerors named the mottled gray bark “Sacred bark.”

Processed bark became famous in the 1800s. It was exported to the European markets.

As one might have guessed, the Pacific Northwest native tree populations declined through overharvesting.

Rising Star

Who would have thought that a local bark could become famous?

The commercial product was called ‘Cascara sagrada’ and it was used in more than 20 percent of the U.S. products in the late 1990’s. The industry at that time had an estimated value of $400 million.

In May 2002, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration banned the use of this tree in over-the-counter drug products and found the use potentially carcinogenic.  

Cascara flowers (courtesy of Oregon State University, Landscape)

Bark?

The outer bark has light splotching (sometimes from lichens). The inner bark is smooth and yellowish. Exposed inner bark will oxidize and turn brown.

Fresh cut bark is intensely bitter and will overpower the taste buds—for hours. Fresh cut, dried bark will cause vomiting and violent diarrhea.

Fruit

The sickly, sweet fruit can be eaten cooked or raw. The berries are deep purple or black with yellow pulp. The berries usually contain two or three hard, smooth seeds.

In the past, the food industry used cascara as a flavoring agent for liquors, soft drinks, ice cream, and baked goods.

NOTE: The fruit and honey both have a laxative effect.

When to Collect

Bark collected in the spring or early summer can be easily peeled off the stem. Bark will be aged and dried for at least a year before use.

Use

Cascara tree bark is a strong laxative that should be used carefully.

It can induce labor in pregnant women and transfer active compounds to nursing infants.

There are several precautions about this bark and warnings that it may be carcinogenic.  

Where Found

This tree is native to northern California up to British Columbia and from the Pacific Coast east into Montana. Leaves are oval up to 6-inches long with fine edge serrations. Small, green flowers develop into blue-black fruits.  

Cascara plant grow near streams in mixed forests. Check under big leaf maple trees–they are often an understory there.

Safe Uses

The fall yellow leaf color is pleasant (color varies based on light) and branching is interesting. Cascara does not adapt well to urban settings and is better in a woodland park or garden.

Cascara is a nice ornamental that can help prevent soil erosion and provide wildlife food and habitat. The fruit is a favorite of the Pileated woodpecker. Bears, raccoons, deer, and other wildlife also consumed the berries.

REFERENCE:
–Oregon State landscape plants (https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/rhamnus-purshiana and https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/frangula-purshiana)
–Wikipedia, Rhamnus purshiana (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhamnus_purshiana)
–Native Plants of the Pacific Northwest (http://nativeplantspnw.com/cascara-frangula-purshiana/)
–Trees & Shrubs for Pacific Northwest Gardens, Grant & Grant

Common Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)

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TRUE OR FALSE? (Answers at end of story)

  1. Porcupines have 30,000 quills on their bodies.
  2. They throw quills like javelins in self-defense.
  3. Porcupines are near-sighted.
  4. Male porcupines do a mating dance.
  5. They have good memories.
  6. They learn quickly.
  7. Porcupines are good swimmers.

Old and New World

Common, or North American, Porcupines range from northern Mexico north into Canada, and Alaska. Porcupine species can be found in tropical and temperate habitats on every continent except Antarctica.

Common porcupine (courtesy of ODFW)

Different species of porcupines developed similar but different types of quills. The 11 species of ‘Old World’ porcupines have quills grouped in clusters. The 12 species of ‘New World’ species, like the Common Porcupine, have quills that are attached singly.

There are other differences as well with the ‘Old World’ preferring rocky areas in higher elevations. The ‘New World’ porcupines are somewhat smaller, live in lower elevations, are excellent climbers, and prefer woodlands.  

Oregon’s Porcupine

One ‘New World’ porcupine lives in Oregon, the Common porcupine. Is a large, stocky, short-legged rodent. Male can weigh over 23 pounds and stretch out nearly 4 feet (including the tail). Females are lighter and smaller.  

Porcupines are usually dark brown or black and have white highlights. Modified hairs, or quills, cover most body surfaces (except the underbelly, face, and feet). Quills are scattered among the course dark guard hair and normally lie flat against the body.  

Diet

These slow-moving rodents live in mixed coniferous and hardwood forests and some rockier areas. Porcupines are active mostly at night, but can be seen feeding in the trees at any time.

Their diet is predominantly vegetarian (including twigs, roots, stems, berries, needles, bark, etc.) and they are pretty picky when choosing which tree to munch on.

They also like salt of any kind and will seek out salt in any form (like that used in plywood, in a backpackers bag, collected on a hand tool, etc.).

Quills

Porcupines do not hibernate and are active year around. Their hollow quills and wooly underfur keep them warm. The quills insulate the porcupine, similar to a polar bear’s fur, and help the porcupine swim.

Native American tribes used quills as tools and decoration (baskets, clothing, and on any item decorated with beads).

Baby porcupines or “porcupettes” are born with quills. These quills typically harden within one hour of birth. Only one porcupette is in the nest at any one time.

Solitary Animals

Male porcupines are solitary (and quiet) for most of their lives, except during breeding season. The volume and activity gets turned up during breeding season.

Males may fight for the right to mate. Males also perform an elaborate dance as part of the mating process.

Females are also solitary most of the time except when breeding and caring for their young. The female provides all parental care. Their solitary life style is cited as one reason for their long lives (up to 30 years in the wild).

Chatter

Porcupines make a variety of vocalizations, some which can be heard at considerable distance. Sounds include moans, grunts, coughs, wails, whines, shrieks, and tooth clicking. They are very vocal during mating season and during attacks.

Even though they are physically slow, they are intelligent and able to learn quickly. They have good memories and will remember being mistreated.

Defense

Porcupines are not aggressive. Even so, they have several effective defense strategies. Like a skunk, the mammal first let’s go a very strong warning odor. They may also loudly clatter their teeth and give a verbal warning.   

The quills however are most deadly defense.

In an attack, the porcupine turns its rear to the predator and contracts muscles near the skin. This causes the quills to stand up and out from the body (‘bristle’), it also reveals a white stripe down the porcupine’s back.  

The white stripe is a warning to other animals and is relatively visible in the dark. Two other North American mammals have contrasting black and white warning colorations. Can you name them? Answer at the end of the story.)

Quill Defense

Bristled quills can detach relatively easy at this point, particularly if the porcupine connects a tail-full at the attacker’s face. The hollow quills easily imbed into the attacker’s flesh.

Quills easily penetrate and embed into skin. They are very painful and difficult to remove.

Each quill has a microscopic barb on the end which makes it difficult to dislodge. Body heat causes the barbs to expand and become deeply embedded.

Embedded quills can cause death or injury to most predators. It takes about 10-42 days to replace quills lost in defense.

Typically, the attacker will retreat. If not, the porcupine will try to escape by climbing a tree. ‘New World’ porcupines are good climbers, and yet, occasionally fall out of trees usually when trying to get that tempting morsel at the end of the branch.

Do they stab themselves?

That brings up the question of ‘Does a porcupine stab itself when it falls from a tree?’ Why yes.

Porcupines have a special protection against self- inflicted pokes/infections. They are the only North American mammal with antibiotics in its skin.

Predators

Predators can include cougars, wolves, coyotes, bears, raptors (golden eagles and great horned owls), and fishers (a cat-sized mammal related to a weasel).

Fishers and cougars are high risk predators for the porcupine. Both are tree climbers and will force the porcupine to the ground. Fishers will repeatedly bite the porcupine face and wear the animal down.   

Quills, however, are not much of a threat to a cougar. It is able to tolerate them to a certain level, although some have been killed with dozens of quills embedded in their gums.

REFERENCES:
–Oregon Dept. of Fish & Wildlife (https://myodfw.com/wildlife-viewing/species/porcupine)
–Porcupines (http://www.nhptv.org/natureworks/porcupine.htm)
–Wikipedia, common porcupines (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_porcupine)
–USDI, Fish & Wildlife Service (https://www.fws.gov/refuge/Tetlin/wildlife_and_habitat/porcupine.html and https://www.fws.gov/refuge/julia_butler_hansen/wildlife_and_habitat/mammals/porcupine.html)

ANSWERS:

True and false: 1. True. Porcupines have 30,000 quills. 2. False. They don’t throw them. 3. True. 4. True and maybe reminiscent of the 1980’s Disco (just kidding!). 5. True. 6. True. 7. True, the air in the quills help them float.

Other white-striped animals: wolverines and skunks.