Author’s Notes: As a land use planner working primarily in local government, I implement land-use management policies aimed at responsible land management, hazard mitigation, and public services. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) play an increasingly important role in the development of management plans that assist in hazard mitigation planning and land use processes. The following annotated bibliography documents a variety of GIS based tools and techniques that have been used to guide, or could be applied towards, land use planning both before and after a natural disaster. Please submit any questions or comments through the contact form at the bottom.
Lindsey King – GEOG 560, Winter 2021, Oregon State University
Annotated Bibliography
Application of a multi-hazard risk assessment for local planning
Buck, K. and Summers, J., 2020. Application of a multi-hazard risk assessment for local planning. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 11(1), pp.2058-2078.
This article discusses multi-hazard assessment for vulnerability using spatial tools among multiple factors, for example land area, population and climate variables. Using tools such as spatial analysis to track different types of vulnerability are critical in the sustainability of land use planning. The authors use the Patterns of Risk using an Integrated Spatial Multi-hazard) PRISM method. This method may be based on historical events matched with updated data sets that can give estimates to potential hazard exposures. It is expressed that the methods can use the data to create buffer zones for greater loss category estimates. The maps associated use population density in correlation with risks to interpret how severe the hazard risk may be. Specific examples depicting how the data was gathered, analyzed and presented giving readers thorough explanation if methods used. Huston, Texas has many hazards, primarily with flooding, Figure 7 shows property vulnerability correlated with FEMA residential damage reports (levels). Agencies can use this type of modeling to prepare for long term planning, such as amending a comprehensive plan or writing a new resource code.
Creating Hazard Resilient Communities though Land-Use Planning
Burby, R., Deyle, R., Godschalk, D., & Olshansky, R. (2000). Creating Hazard Resilient Communities through Land-Use Planning. Natural Hazards Review, 1(2), 99-106. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)1527-6988(2000)1:2(99)
In this article, the authors discuss the relationship between hazard mitigation planning and land use planning on state and local levels and how this method can create more resilient and resistant communities to disaster. The hazards are presented in maps, and map layers on a mapping platform (GIS), and are correlated to regulations in land-use codes. The maps that land use planners utilize present boundaries showing where the applied codes will reference. The standard layers or boundaries can include, floodplain, landslide susceptibility, zone allowances, slopes, and coastal/non-coastal erosion. The land-use maps have overlays to assist in the process of development, redevelopment, and are associated with laws and regulations that when utilized together create resiliency and better land management practices. This method combined with accurate and descriptive maps can protect the public, be used as tools to protect the lands in which they are adopted. In the manner of recent Oregon fires this method would greatly assist the task of rebuilding, not just for citizens but for all agencies involved. Agencies utilizing the methods are planning departments, building departments, environmental quality and onsite waste water agencies.
Using Matching Methods to Estimate Impacts of Wildfire and Post Wildfire Flooding on House Prices
Mueller, J. M., Lima, R. E., Springer, A. E., & Schiefer, E. (2018). Using matching methods to estimate impacts of wildfire and post wildfire flooding on house prices. Water Resources Research, 54, 6189–6201. https://doi.org/10.1029/ 2017WR022195
Wildfires have an unpredicted negative effect on housing prices post fire, largely due to the flooding after the threat of the raging fire is extinguished. The arid pine forests of north central Arizona experienced a large magnitude wildfire in 2010 that created unprecedented flood in the following months. In this study, the authors have incorporated wildfire data, post-wildfire data and housing data to show the correlation between the fires and a decrease in housing process within the immediate area. The authors used created maps showing wildfire boundaries, parcels that had recently sold, flood prone areas (5- and 25-year flood zones) and a benchmark photo icon to show spatial reference for a photo further in the study. The study provides a framework for modeling impacts of wildfires, resulting in flooding, to the local real estate market. These impact statements can be used in local government to provide information about rebuilding in a wildfire zone to local citizens to protect their long-term investment. Additionally, the information presented can assist potential home buyers and insurance agencies as to where the best location might be for purchasing a home. This information utilized on a planning level can help agency employees give out the most critically relevant information to customers looking to either buy a home, sell or build in the area.
City-scale accessibility of emergency responders operating during flood events
Green, D., Yu, D., Pattison, I., Wilby, R., Bosher, L., Patel, R., Thompson, P., Trowell, K., Draycon, J., Halse, M., Yang, L. and Ryley, T., 2017. City-scale accessibility of emergency responders operating during flood events. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 17(1), pp.1-16.
Surface Flooding in an ever-increasing threat to urban communities, often becoming more extreme as time impervious surfaces increase due to development. Often with flooding comes the need for first responders, or emergency services, the authors explore the impact that flooding has on the standard response time. With floods being the most substantial disaster and causing approximately 7,000 deaths annually it is imperative that emergency services are able to have reasonable response times. Using GIS, the authors created maps showing different flood events and the unrestricted and restricted paths of movement for those responders in relation to the service stations. The data shows overlay to certain stations and clearly outlines where their service boundaries are, allowing for the most efficient modeling of dispatch and paths of travel. One conclusion drawn from the data was that response teams were down up to 34% in times of surface water flooding. This type of modeling would greatly benefit local communities, both urban and rural, especially in the event of a post wildfire flood where roads may not be open yet or in service. Additionally using a map layout described in the article allows communities to know what service stations, if any would be at risk for compromise in an event.
Colorado fights fires
Johnson, N. (1997). Colorado fights fires. Chicago Planning, 63(7), 4-6. Retrieved 13 March 2021, from http://proxy.library.oregonstate.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/trade-journals/colorado-fights-fires/docview/206709048/se-2?accountid=13013.
After a series of devastating fires in Boulder Colorado, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) mandated that certain agencies and citizens create a document to mitigate natural disasters of serious and deadly manner. The mitigation plan created two things, a “Wildfire Hazard Identification and Mitigation System (WHIMS)” and a group of individuals that produced and implemented this plan. One of the key components to the plan was using GIS create identifiers showing where hazards were, how to manage the lands, and most importantly to educate the homeowners with the risks involved. To create a database of this magnitude properties had to be thoroughly surveyed. Landscapes which included topographic features and building construction, water availability, access and others were included in these surveys. These individual layers derived from the surveys were integrated into a GIS system to allow for interactive hazard mapping. The data was compiled over months, cost thousands of dollars and once completed it was given to local agencies including the county planning department for implementation. Having a data base to this extent would be extremely beneficial to a local planning department, given the extreme risks that wildfires pose to the health, safety and general welfare of the general public.
Spatial and temporal patterns of sediment storage and erosion following a wildfire and extreme flood
Brogan, D., Nelson, P., & MacDonald, L. (2019). Spatial and temporal patterns of sediment storage and erosion following a wildfire and extreme flood. Earth Surface Dynamics, 7(2), 563-590. https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-7-563-2019
In a post wildfire landscape, specifically in a forested area, the areas of damage have an increasingly higher rate of erosion and runoff. The flooding that accompanies run off and erosion events can greatly change the landscapes, altering water flows, and increase sediment to areas that are not accustom to events. The authors detail how the lack of high spatial and high temporal resolution data has created a hinderance to better understanding the long- and short-term effects of the large-scale fires. GIS is used to produce maps that show the levels of sediment storage and areas of erosion after a fire or flood. Tools that are used to create area polygons for each data segment were the “hydrology” toolset and the “raster to polygon” tool in ArcGIS. Another model that used GIS was one showing measurements of precipitation and the relationship to intensity of flows over two different locations. The result of the research can show how ground scour caused by wildfire mixed with erosion and flooding can cause significant alterations to the deposition of sediments. Knowing the probability of sediment flow caused by post wildfire flooding and erosion allows for hazard managers to create regulations protecting property owners and users of the land from threats. If an area is prone to erosion and is likely to carry a significant amount of sediment the probability of it being a safe area for human habitants is low.
A New Vision for Wildfire Planning: A Report on Land Use and Wildfires
1000 Friends of Oregon. (2018). A New Vision for Wildfire Planning: A Report on Land Use and Wildfires (pp. 10-40). 1000 Friends of Oregon. Retrieved from https://friends.org/sites/default/files/2019-04/A%20New%20Vision%20for%20Wildfire%20Planning%202018.pdf
The report written on behalf of 1000 Friends of Oregon addresses critical factors in forest management as it relates to wildfires. The report addresses multiple factors specific to Oregon’s land use laws, regulations and land management. The largest human treat from wildfires is the destruction of property, property that is in the ‘wildland-urban interface’ or WUI (Wooo-eeee). The WUI is an area of higher development density. The higher density areas are managed by state land use laws which encouraging residential development in clusters, rather that sprawl; 60% of homes built in the last 10 years have been in the WUI. The clustering of homes leaves more forest land available for resource uses like logging, recreation and other forest activities. The author used many different types of maps for their examples, showing outlines of forest fires in comparison to areas of residential density, WUI households by state and forest information outlining high fire risk areas. When citizens are considering mobbing into a rural area like the WUI that they are made aware of the risks for wildfire. Maps and other graphics that support data can be the best tool in education the property owners, showing them that there are real potential dangers in moving to a forested area.
Landslide Susceptibility Assessment of Wildfire Burnt Areas through Earth-Observation Techniques and a Machine Learning-Based Approach
Di Napoli, M., Marsiglia, P., Di Martire, D., Ramondini, M., Ullo, S., & Calcaterra, D. (2020). Landslide Susceptibility Assessment of Wildfire Burnt Areas through Earth-Observation Techniques and a Machine Learning-Based Approach. Remote Sensing, 12(15), 2505. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12152505
Debris flow is one of the most dangerous post wildfire effects, that can cost impacts to landscape, structures and directly impact the lives of everyone around. This study area, in southwest Italy the authors studied a landslide susceptibility assessment (LSA) using specific algorithms with a or without a satellite data sequence. The authors used a series of predisposing factors and their final result using these methods was a susceptibility map, that has the potential to expand knowledge of landslides in the post wildfire hillsides. A flow chart shows the implemented approach that has multiple different steps, each approach thoroughly detailed in the report. This study, showing how over time the burned areas, loss of vegetation and breakdown of root systems destabilize slopes, causing a higher susceptibility of erosion and landslides. Among the results the authors concluded that to improve this study a more accurate scale analysis of the area covered by fire and an examination of the geotechnical characteristics of the material. The maps produced show the significance of post wildfire area management, they show the critical nature in which this management is necessary in more urbanized areas typically located at the base of the slopes and fire areas. Knowing the probable location of a hazard can prepare local communities response teams, even help land use planners with future development locations.
Managing for Future Risks of Fire, Extreme Precipitation, and Post-Fire Flooding
Garfin, G., S. LeRoy, D. Martin, M. Hammersley, A. Youberg, and R. Quay. 2016. Managing for Future Risks of Fire, Extreme Precipitation, and Post-fire Flooding. Report to the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, from the project Enhancing Water Supply Reliability. Tucson, AZ: Institute of the Environment, 33 p.
Wildfires create more hazards than the initial burn, following a fire extreme flooding and erosion pose risk to those in the immediate areas. A stakeholder meeting was held to discuss the needs following the fire and create an execution list of tools to manage the future fire risks. Those involved envisioned a resource entirely web based that allowed its users to access data collected from post fire areas. This data included case studies, hazard plans, maps, planning tools what would become the structure of the web-based hazard mitigation guide. The primary objective as discussed in the report was to expand understanding of the science and management decision making needs in times of wildfire, extreme precipitation and post wildfire flooding. In the western United States winter and spring storms bring heavy amounts of precipitation and snowfall. The storms are called Atmospheric Rivers. This weather event is associated with flash flooding that can result from the spring run off. The authors provided figures showing the patterns of the atmospheric river as well as different types of storms in the western half of the country. As this report looks forward a greater uncertainty for future weather patterns (precipitation) presents itself; climate models are showing less similarities about projected changes. The authors noted that the most important piece of data they needed to identify was data with a high resolution that would allow identification of debris flow, flood triggering and the ability to provide alerts. From a management standpoint the most important outcome from this report is informing property owner of the risks associated with wildfires and the hazards that follow.
Assessing and mapping multi-hazard risk susceptibility using a machine learning technique
Pourghasemi, H., Kariminejad, N., Amiri, M., Edalat, M., Zarafshar, M., Blaschke, T., & Cerda, A. (2020). Assessing and mapping multi-hazard risk susceptibility using a machine learning technique. Scientific Reports, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-60191-3
Hazards can be singular events but can also me multi-faceted events with more than one type of natural hazard posing the threat. The authors of this article created four different maps: flooding, forest fires, and landslides. They then prioritized each impact of the factors on the occurrence of the hazards using the Boruta algorithm. The report recommended that communities who are more vulnerable to hazards observe guidelines and use them to plan more appropriately. Recently the accuracy of hazard vulnerability mapping has been improved with the utilization of GIS and remote sensing (RS). The methods used in this report were compiled of three major steps shown in Fig. 1 of the report. From this method data was gathered and the detailed mapping of the terrain was created. The Boruta algorithm was used to prioritize the selected features of each hazard. From this susceptibility maps were produced using the RF model and showing users low, moderate, high and very high hazard susceptibility levels. The result of the multi-hazard analysis indicated certain areas that were more susceptible to flooding, flooding and fire hazard, or fires and land slides or any combination of the three hazards presented. The multi-hazard maps prepared by this study can be utilized in watershed management, land use planning and to aid in sustainable development of a region.
Forecasting and visualization of wildfires in a 3D geographical information system
Castrillón, M., Jorge, P., López, I., Macías, A., Martín, D., & Nebot, R. et al. (2011). Forecasting and visualization of wildfires in a 3D geographical information system. Computers & Geosciences, 37(3), 390-396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cageo.2010.04.011
The effect that wildfires have on runoff and erosion dramatically increases immediately following the event, especially in the event of a heavy rainfall. This study uses simulation to predict the flows of erosion, runoff and flooding. These wildfire events indirectly affect water resources as well, increasing water flows in smaller creeks and streams adding to the severity of the post wildfire runoff and erosion. In the event of a high or moderately severe wildfire the authors noted that the soils developed a water-repellent layer near the surface of the affected area. The water repellant layer severely restricts the absorption and displaces the water to overflow areas. This lack of absorption is due to fire consumption of all surface woody debris. In this specific example the three study plots created had high fire-prone fuels in them, native to the western United States. The plots were located using a simple GIS map with location identifiers for reference and specific rain mechanisms were used for the simulations. The result from the tests showed that the level of burn severity directly correlated with the infiltration rate of water from heavy rain above 3 centimeters. The report concluded that the recovery of ground cover was critical in reducing the amount of run off, erosion and flooding. Utilizing this data by land use managers greatly influences matters of rehabilitation for burned areas.
Natural hazard mitigation in local comprehensive plans
Srivastava, R., & Laurian, L. (2006). Natural hazard mitigation in local comprehensive plans. Disaster Prevention And Management: An International Journal, 15(3), 461-483. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653560610669936
Planning for natural hazards on a long-term timeline proves to be difficult and somewhat lacking in countries where natural hazards are increasingly present. This journal aims to study and make recommendations to improve natural hazards plan in comprehensive plans to local jurisdictions in Arizona. The counties studied have high susceptibility of flood, fire and drought, each county’s comprehensive plan was evaluated for plans to help mitigate these hazards. The best plan to mitigate hazards like flooding and fire are to encourage growth away form these hazardous areas. A way that local governments do this is through land use planning, more specifically the Comprehensive Plan adopted by each jurisdiction. Using GIS to create hazard layers allows planners to create specific hazard sectioned maps within the comprehensive plan maps. This gives a visual outline of where potential growth and development should go. The authors use FEMA floodplain maps as an example of a hazard (floodplain) and areas that local land use laws can mitigate. The floodplain map overlay in the example is a useful tool for potential developers, planners, and emergency services with respect to the potential roadblocks that might appear. The authors state that their subject counties have weak fire protection planning and suggesting that an updated fire plan providing mitigation provisions would best benefit an area so prone to this type of disaster. Utilizing these maps can provide a proactive approach or long-term solution to hazard mitigation, not a reactive that looks for a short-term solution. As the State of Oregon battles forest fires, using long term planning regulations typically found in comprehensive plans will allow for a more manageable redevelopment of damaged areas with the intention of preventing future disasters.
Evaluation of the post-fire erosion and flood control works in the area of Cassandra (Chalkidiki, North Greece)
Aristeidis, K., & Vasiliki, K. (2015). Evaluation of the post-fire erosion and flood control works in the area of Cassandra (Chalkidiki, North Greece). Journal Of Forestry Research, 26(1), 209-217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-014-0005-9
Wildfires notoriously cause erosion and flooding, in the case of two drainage basins in northern Greece. There have been some advancements made to minimize the impacts of these hazards. The dramatically burned area within the two basins were chosen for their steep slopes, severe fire damage and the high potential for erosion and flooding. The goal of the study was to crate a post fire representative management plan to help similar areas and climates manage the post fire hazards. The data was obtained using field survey, and also used topographic, geologic and vegetation maps. These maps were instrumental in the materials and methods of the study, allowing results to be more effective. The maps were digitalized using ArcGIS of ESRI, Inc. Peak discharge is measured using floodwater tracing method to accurately determine the maximum peak discharge of waters. The maps showed the watersheds, drainage networks, settlements, and elevations (shown by shaded scale). The area geology surrounding the drainages was rocky, which is extremely susceptible to erosion, however sediments were small in nature. The preventative measure taken to aid in the prevention to minimize the damage were log dams. Using trees burned from the fire and stacked horizontally in areas of high susceptibility. Since the fires in this study were so intense little to no vegetation was left. This left soil exposed and vulnerable to runoff during intense rainfall. The results of this study showed that properly placed log dams did reduce erosion the movement of sediment, as well as reduced the risk of flooding. The authors did mention that issues did occur and should be addressed in future studies.
Applying GIS to develop a model for forest fire risk: A case study in Espírito Santo, Brazil
Eugenio, F., dos Santos, A., Fiedler, N., Ribeiro, G., da Silva, A., & dos Santos, Á. et al. (2016). Applying GIS to develop a model for forest fire risk: A case study in Espírito Santo, Brazil. Journal Of Environmental Management, 173, 65-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.02.021
Forest fires are an extreme hazard located all over the globe. The authors believe that using spatial distribution remains a necessity to improve fire prevention and management. A standard practice among landowners in rural areas is to control burn; this can however result in mismanagement of that fire and eventually lead to a forest fire. The study area used was in southeastern Brazil, an area prone to forest fires based on its warmer dry winters. The authors created a step list to mapping the forest fire risk in the subject area. They started with an Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) digital elevation model (DEM) to map the terrain. The consistency of meteorological data is verified followed by calculating the water balance, which the authors go into detail about. The general maps are created, showing the spatial distribution of weather stations, and the forest fire risk presented from risk levels; low to extreme. The conclusion drawn is that an estimated 75% of the study area has a very high and extreme fire risk. This knowledge can greatly increase the success in planning on the local level for hazards like a forest fire. It can also educate locals of the dangers of their controlled burns on their farms.
Assessing the impacts of federal forest planning on wildfire risk mitigation in the Pacific Northwest, USA
Ager, A., Day, M., Short, K., & Evers, C. (2016). Assessing the impacts of federal forest planning on wildfire risk mitigation in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Landscape And Urban Planning, 147, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.11.007
As development increasingly moved to rural areas the threat of forest fires in the Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) increase as well. The authors aimed this study at understanding and protecting the WUI using simulation modeling to pinpoint areas that could possibly transmit fire to the nearby WUI. Human ignition patterns and understanding the rural and urban landscapes with their relation to fires has been a recent battle not just in the United States but around the world. The authors gathered the data for 16 national forests in Oregon and Washington, then classifying each on whether wilderness area with little to no management or recreational land that is heavily managed. They analyzed different goals, restrictions and protections, using this data to create multiple maps using GIS. The maps define the specific forests, showing what is allowed (management abilities) and the WUI boundary. This visual give a clear and defined picture of the individual forest and their relationship to the WUI. Other maps showing severity over time, as well as ‘firesheds’ on the national forests showing areas where ignition contribute to the fires spread into the WUI; the structures were mapped showing the susceptibility of ignition images. A study result showed the spatial distribution of the restoration themes for a study area, depicting levels of management allowable. The result of this report shows that geospatial data can be used to show conflicts among maps; give opportunities for restoration, adaptation and land management.
