The following is an annotated bibliography for how GIS is applied to study urban green spaces and their benefits to society. Some of the literature also delves into how green spaces is an environmental justice issue and not all are given equitable access.
Annotated Bibliography
Husqvarna AB. (2021). HUGSI 2021 report. https://www.hugsi.green/about
Husqvarna, the manufacturer of outdoor landscaping equipment, created the Husqvarna Urban Green Space Index (HUGSI). Their latest report from 2021 analyzed 177 cities in 60 countries for green spaces. They use satellite imagery data to calculate several Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), including percent urban green space, health of urban green space, urban green space per capita, distribution of urban green space, percentage covered by trees, percentage covered by grass. Using these KPIs, HUGSI has benchmarked multiple cities and made them available for comparison, see https://hugsi.green/compare/?_vs_ for the comparison tool.
Wolch, J.R., Byrne J., & Newell, J.P. (2014). Urban Green space, public health, and environmental justice: The challenge of making cities ‘just green enough’. Landscape and Urban Planning, 125(May 2014), 234-244.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.017
In this article, the authors give examples of how urban green space support the ecological health of cities and improve public health, both physical and psychological. Trees can filter out air pollution and provide shade for residents. Urban green space is presented as an environmental justice issue. Access to such green spaces is not equal and is often divided along economic and racial boundaries. In the United States, low income and minority populations will live in urban environments where access to green space may be limited. Wealthier residents may be in the suburbs where greenspace is more available and better maintained. Intentionally increasing green space can increase desirability of an area and increase housing costs, so increasing the availability of greenspace may lead to the unintentional effect of pushing out low-income residents (gentrification).
Paul, L. A., Hystad, P., Burnett, R. T., Kwong, J. C., Crouse, D. L., van Donkelaar, A., Tu, K., Lavigne, E., Copes, R., Martin, R. V., & Chen, H. (2020). Urban green space and the risks of dementia and stroke. Environmental research, 186, 109520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109520
Half of the world’s population resides in urban centers, with an estimated increase to 65% by 2050. Increased urbanization may lead to a decrease in neurological health (increased stress, social isolation, and developmental disorders). Urban greenspaces can reduce some of these risks. The authors performed a study of adults residing in urban areas in Ontario, Canada over a 13 year period. They used the normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) from satellite imagery to quantify urban vegetation. They linked individuals to proximity of green spaces using their postal code. Findings found that reduced cases of dementia (3% reduction) and stroke (4% reduction) were associated with higher levels of access to green spaces.
Mary D. Willis, Elaine L. Hill, Andrew Boslett, Molly L. Kile, Susan E. Carozza, & Perry Hystad (2021). Associations between Residential Proximity to Oil and Gas Drilling and Term Birth Weight and Small-for-Gestational-Age Infants in Texas: A Difference-in-Differences Analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives, 129(7), 077002. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP7678
Shale gas extraction in the United States has increased significantly in the past two decades. Oil and gas reserves in Texas now account for 41% of crude oil production in the US. While these reserves bring a economic development, there are health risk concerns. It is estimated that 4.5 million Texans live within a mile of an oil or gas drilling site. Proximity to these sites increases risks from noise, pollution (air, water, and light), and social stresses. These stressors may negatively impact the development of fetuses. The study found that there was a small reduction in birth weight but no difference with small gestational age (SGA) associated with proximity to drill sites.
Hystad, P., Payette, Y., Noisel, N., & Boileau, C. (2019). Green space associations with mental health and cognitive function: Results from the Quebec CARTaGENE cohort. Environmental Epidemiology, 3, e040. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/EE9.0000000000000040
This study looked at the association between urban green spaces and mental health in Quebec, Canada. 8,144 adults were assessed in the study. Anxiety and depression were evaluated through medical records, self-reporting and standard questionnaires and evaluation methods. The study also gauged cognitive function using computerized clinical testing (6,658 individuals). Participants’ access to green space was measured using normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) from satellite imagery, together with residential addresses. The study found evidence that urban green spaces lead to lower rates of depression and anxiety. There was no evidence that supported a shift in cognitive function.
Philip Stessens, Ahmed Z. Khan, Marijke Huysmans, & Frank Canters (2017). Analysing urban green space accessibility and quality: A GIS-based model as spatial decision support for urban ecosystem services in Brussels. Ecosystem Services, 28, 328-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.10.016
The authors propose a model to analyze access to green spaces. The model looks at what is called the theoretical functional level (TFL) and quality of green space in relation to the proximity of urban blocks. TFL is a measure that relates distance to a greenspace to the size of space. The concept is that size determines the range of activities that a greenspace may support and that residents would be willing to travel longer distances to access a larger green space. This willingness is due to the larger spaces offering more in terms of functions and benefits. The model was applied to Brussels and found that there was a concentric pattern with low quality and low proximity of green spaces in the center of the city and high proximity and quality in the outer regions. Authors propose that this model can be used to evaluate current greenspaces and used to better plan and develop urban green spaces in the future.
Jennings, V., Gaither, C.J., Gragg, R.S. (2012). Promoting Environmental Justice Through Urban Green Space Access: A Synopsis. Environmental Justice, 5(1) 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2011.0007
Traditionally, environmental justice has focused on locations of landfills, toxic facilities or other hazards in relation to residential areas of low income or minority populations. However, research has shown uneven green space distribution within urban areas along socioeconomic lines. Access to urban green spaces is an environmental justice issue that has not been given large amounts of consideration in the past. Green spaces reduce pollution and promote physical activity, increasing health prospects for residents.
Masterton, W., Carver, H., & Parkes, T. (2020, August 7). Parks and green spaces are important for our mental health – but we need to make sure that everyone can benefit. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/parks-and-green-spaces-are-important-for-our-mental-health-but-we-need-to-make-sure-that-everyone-can-benefit-142322
Time spent in nature has been shown to improve mental health. The authors are developing a framework to help others develop green space programs. They have shown that greenspace programs can improve mental health through 7 factors: feeling of escape and getting away, having space to reflect, physical activity, learning to deal with things, having a purpose, relationships with program leaders, and shared social experiences. Income inequalities prevent many from having adequate access to green space. In London, the wealthier areas have more than 10% public green space than lower income areas. The authors argue that funding should be prioritized to provide better access to those who have been disadvantaged through lack of green space access.
White, M. P., Alcock, I., Grellier, J., Wheeler, B. W., Hartig, T., Warber, S. L., Bone, A., Depledge, M. H., & Fleming, L. E. (2019, June 13). Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing. Scientific Reports, 9, 7730. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44097-3
This report looked at the association of better health with contact with nature. Of the 19,806 participants, those that had greater than 2 hours of contact per week had a greater chance of reporting better health than those that did not. There was no significant improvement in positive outcomes past 200-300 minutes of weekly exposure. Rather than just using the participants proximity to greenspace, this report measured actual exposure to nature with participants providing self-reporting of health and well-being. The self-reported health assessment was done through a single question, “How is your health in general”, with a response of “Very bad”, “Bad”, “Fair”, “Good”, “Very good”. Likewise, well-being was self-evaluated using the question, “Overall, how satisfied are you with life nowadays?”, with responses from 0 (“Not at all’) to 10 (“Completely”).
Gracia, R., Collins, A. (2015, August 1). The EPA and Parks, Environmental Justice and the Disposable of Society. Parks and Recreation Magazine. https://www.nrpa.org/parks-recreation-magazine/2015/august/the-epa-and-parks-environmental-justice-and-the-disposable-of-society/
There are multiple organizations that are pressuring the EPA to take access to parks and outdoor recreation as an environmental justice issue. In LA, 85% of the population does not have easy pedestrian access to the parks. The demographic of this majority is largely minority and/or low-income. African-American neighborhoods have 1.7 acres of parks per 1,000 residents, Latino 0.6 acres. This greatly contrasts against the 32 acres per 1,000 residents in predominantly white neighborhoods.
Martin Mwirigi M’Ikiugu, Isami Kinoshita, & Yoritaka Tashiro (2012). Urban Green Space Analysis and Identification of its Potential Expansion Areas. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 35, 449-458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.02.110
The authors studied the Urban Green Spaces (UGS) of Central Nairobi, which is the oldest, most developed part of Nairobi city. The study found green space accounting for 9.86% of the total area (41.75 square km). Furthermore, only 0.78% of the total area (7.89% of measured green space), was public recreational parks. Majority of the green space is not accessible to the public. It is split between institutional (2.55% of total, 25.89% of green space), golf courses (2.44% of total, 24.72% of greenspace), and residential (2.11% of total, 21.38% of greenspace). As a comparison the authors pointed out that Hanoi, Vietnam has a set minimum amount of greenspace at 18% by area, though what percent of this green space is accessible to the public was not made available.
Leslie, K. (2019, June 18). New study maps transit-to-parks equity; shows south King County has greatest need and opportunity. The Wilderness Society. https://www.wilderness.org/articles/press-release/new-study-maps-transit-parks-equity-shows-south-king-county-has-greatest-need-and-opportunity#
Using GIS, The Wilderness Society highlighted locations within King County where public transit could be improved to provide more equitable access to green spaces within the greater Seattle area. The report pointed out adjustments that could be made to public transportation routes to allow better access to green spaces for county residents located further from green spaces.
Ludwig, C.; Hecht, R.; Lautenbach, S.; Schorcht, M.; Zipf, A. (2021, April 9). Mapping Public Urban Green Spaces Based on OpenStreetMap and Sentinel-2 Imagery Using Belief Functions. ISPRS, 10(251). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10040251
In this report, the authors addressed the creation of more accurate maps of green spaces in urban areas. They merged information from two data sets, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) taken from satellite imagery and OpenStreetMap data (open map data where anyone can contribute). The issue with satellite imagery is that it does not differentiate between private and public greenspaces. The disadvantage of OpenStreetMap data is that it is not always complete or consistent. They tested this method in Dresden, Germany and found an overall accuracy of 95%.
Lahoti, S., Kefi, M., Lahoti, A., & Saito, O. (2019). Mapping Methodology of Public Urban Green Spaces Using GIS: An Example of Nagpur City, India. Sustainability, 11(7).
Most developed cities have already created and utilized datasets to map their urban greens spaces. This contrast to many developing countries that do not have detailed data or mapping of their green spaces. In this report, the authors proposed a methodology to map urban green spaces in a developing city, Nagpur, India. Google Earth data was combined with boundary data to analyze public data as an urban green space. Private land was not considered since it subject to change and not accessible to everyone.
Kshama Gupta, Arijit Roy, Kanishka Luthra, Sandeep Maithani, & Mahavir (2016). GIS based analysis for assessing the accessibility at hierarchical levels of urban green spaces. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 18, 198-211.
This study looks at how accessible urban green spaces at all hierarchical levels. Here, the definition of a hierarchical level can vary depending on the definition made by different authorities or governments. One hierarchy could be defined as a play area suitable for early age children, another hierarchy could be a park with walking paths, and another could be a sports facility. The authors advise that all hierarchical levels are important, and each can complement one another. Delhi was evaluated using satellite data and published map data. The city was split into 4 areas, and it was found there was a large difference between accessibility of public green spaces depending on the area. Overall, there was a large deficiency in available play areas for young children.
Deusen, Jen Van. (2021, Feb 25). Urban Parks Play a Key Role in Curbing Inequity and Climate Impacts. ESRI blog. https://www.esri.com/about/newsroom/blog/smart-cities-greenspace-analysis/
The Trust for Public Land (TPL) is a San Francisco nonprofit backing urban parks and other green spaces. The organization uses GIS to find communities that lack accessible park or green space access. One of the metrics they use is how many residents can reach a park within a 10-minute walk. One example of their work is New Orleans after hurricane Katrina. In New Orleans, TPL implemented their Climate-Smart Cities program. This program utilized GIS datasets to provide guidance for how to best implement improvements to address city infrastructure as well as social equity. One example is the replacement of concrete surfaces (such as in school grounds) with gardens that absorb rainfall and runoff to help ease flooding concerns.
Wei Chen, Huiping Huang, Jinwei Dong, Yuan Zhang, Yichen Tian, & Zhiqi Yang (2018). Social functional mapping of urban green space using remote sensing and social sensing data. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 146, 436-452.
In this study, the authors identified a need to combine the physical features with social function for urban green spaces. Physical feature data collection was performed using remote sensing via satellite imagery and classified such things as type of vegetation, for example, grass and/or trees. Points of Interest (park, square, zoo, etc) data was then used along with streetmaps to classify each greenspace with its social function. For example, this method would classify a green space as a community park, residential area, or a buffer as part of a highway overpass. This level of detail can be used to help plan urban development and green spaces.
